Trends in Development

Trends in GROWTH AND Development

 

1.   CEPHALOCAUDLE :-

• Development proceeds from the head downward.  
• According to this principle, the child gains control of the head first, then the arms, and then the legs.  
• Infants develop control of the head and face movements within the first two months after birth.  In the next few months, they are able to lift themselves up by using their arms. 
• By 6 to 12 months of age, infants start to gain leg control and may be able to crawl, stand, or walk.  Coordination of arms always precedes coordination of legs.

 2.   PROXIMODISTAL :- 

• Development proceeds from the center of the body outward.
• This means that the spinal cord develops before outer parts of the body.  
• The child’s arms develop before the hands and the hands and feet develop before the fingers and toes.  
• Finger and toe muscles (used in fine motor dexterity) are the last to develop in physical development.

 3.   MATURATION & LEARNING: -

• Maturation refers to the sequential characteristic of biological growth and development.  
• The biological changes occur in sequential order and give children new abilities.  Changes in the brain and nervous system account largely for maturation.  
• These changes in the brain and nervous system help children to improve in thinking (cognitive) and motor (physical) skills.  
• Also, children must mature to a certain point before they can progress to new skills (Readiness).  
• For example, a four-month-old cannot use language because the infant’s brain has not matured enough to allow the child to talk.  By two years old, the brain has developed further and with help from others, the child will have the capacity to say and understand words.  
• Also, a child can’t write or draw until he has developed the motor control to hold a pencil or crayon.  
• Maturation patterns are innate, that is, genetically programmed. 
• The child’s environment and the learning that occurs as a result of the child’s experiences largely determine whether the child will reach optimal development.  
• A stimulating environment and varied experiences allow a child to develop to his or her potential.         

 4.  CONCRETE TO COMPLEX: -   

• Children use their cognitive and language skills to reason and solve problems.  
• For example, learning relationships between things (how things are similar), or classification, is an important ability in cognitive development.  
• The cognitive process of learning how an apple and orange are alike begins with the most simplistic or concrete thought of describing the two.  Seeing no relationship, a preschool child will describe the objects according to some property of the object, such as color. Such a response would be,  “An apple is red (or green) and an orange is orange.”  
• The first level of thinking about how objects are alike is to give a description or functional relationship (both concrete thoughts) between the two objects.  “An apple and orange are round” and “An apple and orange are alike because you eat them” are typical responses of three, four and five year old.  
• As children develop further in cognitive skills, they are able to understand a higher and more complex relationship between objects and things; that is, that an apple and orange exist in a class called fruit. The child cognitively is then capable of classification. 

5.   CONTINUOUS PROCESS: -  

• As a child develops, he or she adds to the skills already acquired and the new skills become the basis for further achievement and mastery of skills.  Most children follow a similar pattern. Also, one stage of development lays the foundation for the next stage of development. 
• For example, in motor development, there is a predictable sequence of developments that occur before walking.  The infant lifts and turns the head before he or she can turn over.  Infants can move their limbs (arms and legs) before grasping an object.  
• Mastery of climbing stairs involves increasing skills from holding on to walking alone.  By the age of four, most children can walk up and down stairs with alternating feet.  As in maturation, in order for children to write or draw, they must have developed the manual (hand) control to hold a pencil and crayon.

 6.   GENERAL TO SPECIFIC: -

• In motor development, the infant will be able to grasp an object with the whole hand before using only the thumb and forefinger.  The infant’s first motor movements are very generalized, undirected, and reflexive, waving arms or kicking before being able to reach or creep toward an object.  Growth occurs from large muscle movements to more refined (smaller) muscle movements. 

 7.   There are individual rates of growth and development.

• Each child is different and the rates at which individual children grow is different.  Although the patterns and sequences for growth and development are usually the same for all children, the rates at which individual children reach developmental stages will be different.  
• Understanding this fact of individual differences in rates of development should cause us to be careful about using and relying on age and stage characteristics to describe or label children.  There is a range of ages for any developmental task to take place.  This dismisses the notion of the “average child”.  
• Some children will walk at ten months while others walk a few months older at eighteen months of age.  Some children are more active while others are more passive.  This does not mean that the passive child will be less intelligent as an adult.  There is no validity to comparing one child’s progress with or against another child.  
• Rates of development also are not uniform within an individual child.  For example, a child’s intellectual development may progress faster than his emotional or social development.
• An understanding of the principles of development helps us to plan appropriate activities and stimulating and enriching experiences for children, and provides a basis for understanding how to encourage and support young children’s learning.

Behaviourism

What is behaviourism ?

Psychological behaviourism is a form of behaviourism - a major theory within psychology which holds that behaviours are learned through positive and negative reinforcements.

Behaviourism was first developed by John B. Watson (1912), who coined the term "behaviourism," and then B.F. Skinner who developed what is known as "radical behaviourism."

The History of Behaviorism

▪ Pavlov (1897) published the results of an experiment on conditioning after originally studying digestion in dogs.

▪ Watson (1913) launches the behavioural school of psychology (classical conditioning), publishing an article, "Psychology as the Behaviourist Views It".

▪ Watson and Rayner (1920) conditioned an orphan called Albert B (aka Little Albert) to fear a white rat.

▪ Thorndike (1905) formalized the "Law of Effect".

▪ Skinner (1936) wrote "The Behavior of Organisms" and introduced the concepts of operant conditioning and shaping.

▪ Clark Hull’s (1943) Principles of Behavior was published.

▪ B.F. Skinner (1948) published Walden Two, in which he described a utopian society founded upon behaviorist principles.

▪ Bandura (1963) publishes a book called the "Social Leaning Theory and Personality development" which combines both cognitive and behavioral frameworks.

▪ Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior (begun in 1958).

▪ B.F. Skinner (1971) published his book, Beyond Freedom and Dignity, where he argues that free will is an illusion.

Behaviourist Approach

Behaviorism (also called the behaviorist approach) was the primary paradigm in psychology between 1920 to 1950, and is based on a number of underlying assumptions regarding methodology and behavioral analysis:


1. All behavior is learnt from the environment:
Thus, people have no free will – a person’s environment determines their behavior. We learn new behavior through classical or operant conditioning.Therefore, when born our mind is 'tabula rasa' (a blank slate).


2. Psychology should be seen as a science:
Theories need to be supported by empirical data obtained through careful and controlled observation and measurement of behavior. Watson (1913) stated that: 'Psychology as a behaviorist views it is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science. Its theoretical goal is … prediction and control.'


3. Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable behavior, as opposed to internal events like thinking and emotion:
Observable (i.e. external) behavior can be objectively and scientifically measured. Internal events, such as thinking should be explained through behavioral terms (or eliminated altogether).


4. There is little difference between the learning that takes place in humans and that in other animals: Therefore, research can be carried out on animals as well as humans (i.e.comparative psychology).


5. Behavior is the result of stimulus – response:
All behavior, no matter how complex, can be reduced to a simple stimulus – response association). Watson described the purpose of psychology as: 'To predict, given the stimulus, what reaction will take place; or, given the reaction, state what the situation or stimulus is that has caused the reaction.'

Behaviourism Summary

Reference - Help taken from Wikipedia

Impact of different parenting styles on child development

In this blog, we are covering one of the short answer type questions, which briefs upon the parents, their parenting styles and its respective impact upon childhood growth and psychology.

I) Authoritarian or Demanding style

1. In authoritarian parenting style the children becomes obedient and follows their parent’s advice and instruction due to parental punishment.  
2. The children become responsive to their parents, who spring to their attention, when their parents ask them to do something immediately.  For example:- If the mother says to bring something from the market the child do it.
3. Children may keep waiting for their parents instructions. For example:- If the child want to attain the friends party, so the child will wait for their parents view.
4. As the child is always dependent on their parents. And he knows that nothing will happen from his side, all will be done from his parents view. Though he wishes something but he will not have the capability to speak in front of his parents. So the children may rank very low in the level of happiness of life. For example:- If the child want red shirt, but the parent want yellow shirt for child. The child will not put his will that he want the red shirt due to strict nature and punishment of the parents, which put a very low level of happiness in child’s life.

II) Authoritative or Firm style

• In authoritative parenting style, children are well known about their parent’s behaviour. As the parent has provided a free and humble behaviour to their children. The children respond according to it. For example:- If a child wants a car. And the parent’s has instructed to do lesson first. So the child knows if he / she will finish her lesson than he / she will get a car. So here in this style children knows, when to respond to their parents instructions and demands.

• As the parents talk and listen to their children, provide opportunity for independence, and provide explanation for discipline and even for work. Children grow up in automotive homes tend to co-operate their parents. For example:- As at home some guest are going to arrive the child will co-operate with their parents by helping them in household things.

• Authoritative parents set realistic expectation for their children, and they provide their children with fair (or natural) consequences. Natural consequences are those that occur as a result of the child’s behaviour. In which the children becomes obedient and responsive.

• Authoritative parents are warmth and nurturing, create loving home environment and provide a high degree of emotion and support which make the child obedient and responsive.

III) Permissive or Liberal Style

• The parents are nurturing, warm and accepting. The permissive parents are overindulgent and allow their children to make their own lives and therefore inattentive and exhibit little control over their children. Which in return may display very poor competency and capability in the children. For example:- If activity is given in the class and parent just not interested in child work. The child will also develop a same feeling and slowly it lessens the competency and capability of the child.

• Parents have low expectations, use minimal discipline and do not feel responsible for how their children will turn out. Their main concerns are let children express their creativity and individuality and to make them happy in the belief that this will teach them right from wrong. In such conditions the child may not do well in their classroom studies and tests. For example:- If parents will not take any interest in the child studies they will throw all the burden on the child. The child will run away from the studies and thus he may not do well in his studies.

• As the parents find it hard to set clear limit, provide structure, are inconsistent disciplinaries and reward lead behaviour regularly. Due to this child display very poor competency and capabilities, which may rank very low in happiness index.

• They may face future problems in self regulating their emotions. As they have not been taught how to control or discipline themselves, they are less likely to develop self-respect. This lack of discipline and structure engenders a desire for some type of control and so they put “a lot of energy into controlling parents and trying to get parents to control them.” Their unmet psychological needs make them “vulnerable to being easily discouraged by everyday problems and turn the child away from full and satisfying participation in the world.

IV) Uninvolved or Impassive style

• Children, who are raised in this manner could face a lot of problems in life. As the parents are neglectful towards their child’s live. They are not bothered about their child’s future. And just they are caught up in their own problems and issues. For example:- In one’s family the parents are indulged in their own fighting. Here in this type of family the child could face a lot of problems in life.

• Such child lack self-control. The child can face a lot of problem in his life due to neglectful parents or those who are un-involved in their child activities. For example:- The disturbed family will generate a child who lack his self-control like – anger, because the child see this in his everyday life.

• They may also lack self-image and self-esteem. In some case, as the parents are such neglectful that they don’t even provide an adequate basic resources to their child, which leads to the child to lose his self image and esteem. For example:- If the child is from a poor neglected family, he will stole the good from the shop, which kills the self-esteem of the child.

• They could be less competent than their peers. As in some parenting style the parent not even provide the basic needs of the child. Than how can the child feel like competent with his peers.  He just sees others and feels like to be different from other children. The child feel insecure and lonely due to this he could be less competent than their peers.

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Growth And Development (Definitions and Stages)

This blog is an initiative to help students with their two years of  Bachelor of Education curriculum. Along with helping students in important sections of the curricula, here we will also be discussing the important questions asked in MCQs (Multiple Choice Question) in various entrance examinations. So this could also help the aspiring candidates of TET (Teachers Eligibility Test), CTET(Central Teachers Eligibility Test) and even PhD Entrance Examinations on Education where emphasis is put on these topics. In current section, we are dealing with the topic of child psychology which comes from the lesson childhood and growing up.

Growth

Meaning : 

Growth refers to a physical change in individual body and behaviour of an organism generally it refers to an increase in size, length, height and weight.

Definitions :

L.X. CROW and A. CROW (1962) suggest the growth refers to structural and physiological changes, and development is concerned with growth as well as those changes in behaviour which result from environmental situations.

ARNOL GESSEL (1929) defines “growth”, is a function of the organism rather than that of the environment as such. The environment furnishes the foil and the milieu for the manifestation of development, but these manifestations comes from inner compulsion and are primarily organised by inherent inner mechanics and by an intrinsic physiology of development.

Development

Meaning :

Development refers to overall changes in shape, form or structure resulting in improved working or functioning. It indicates the changes in the quality or character rather than in quantitative aspects.

Definitions :

According to Hurlock (1959)- 
“Development means a progressive series of changes that occurs in an orderly predictable pattern as a result of maturation and experience.”

According to J.E. Anderson-“Development does not consist merely of adding inches to one’s height or improving one’s ability. Instead, development is a complex process of integrating many structures and functions.”

Robert M. Liebert, R.W. Poulous and G.S. Marmor (1979)-
“Development refers to a process of change in growth and capability over time, as a function of both maturation and interaction with the environment.”  Thus development includes (i) Growth (ii) Capability (iii) Maturation, and (iv) Interaction with environment.

Harold Stevenson (1968)- 
“Development psychology is concerned with the study of changes in behaviour throughout the life span.”

STAGES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Life’s journey begins with conception in the womb of the mother. The approximate nine month spent in mother’s womb is known as the pre-natal period. A child is said to be born when it (fetus) emerges from the internal environment (womb).  It is called post-natal period. 

Now here we will be jotting down various stages in growth and development of child on the basis of physical, mental, emotional, social and moral development.

Early Childhood (3 - 6 years)

[ A ] Physical Development

• Growth in physical dimension during the period of 3 to 6 years of age is not as accelerated as that experienced in infancy. 
• The child begins to assume the body proportions of an adult. Legs growth is rapid and represent about half one’s total height. The head growth is slow and truck growth is intermediate. 
• Generally the weight of the three year-old male child is about 15 Kg and is 38 inches tall. The girls are a bit higher and shorter. By age of five years the average height for boys is 43 inches and the average weight is 20 Kg. The height and weight are affected by a number of variables such as height of parents, nutrition, and illness, etc.
• In addition to size and weight, the child undergoes other physical and physiological changes. The muscles develop at a very rapid speed harder muscles are far better developed than the small and fine muscles. 
• Physiological changes occur in respiration, heart rate slow down and blood pressure goes up steadily brain is also developed.

[ B ] Cognitive Development / Intellectual Development

The intellectual development of the child accelerated after the age of three because now he begins to explore his social environment and acquires new experiences.

          

Following are the major characteristic of intellectual development.

1. Child begins to form concepts of physical and social reality. By the age of six the child develops perception of size, shape, colour, time and distance, etc. 
2. Memory increases at a very rapid speed. The child can learn by rote memorisation. Creativity develops in children and imagination begins to grow. Thinking and reasoning develop in relation to concrete material. 
3. Span of attention increases from seven minutes to twenty minutes and interest in exploring the environment increases. Child is now able to use Symbols in language, drawing symbolic play and problem solving.

[ C ] Social Development

• A child is born in a social environment where his personality development is shaped in accordance with the term of the society.
• Feeling of autonomy develops in children. They begin to explore their environment independently. Social environment expands beyond home.
• Children of both sexes play together without any discrimination. They actively participate in group games in which physical energy is used such as hide and seek.
• They learn to co-operate with others and make friends on shared interests and similar personality traits.
• Children take interest in fairy tales and animal stories.
• Negativism increases between the years three to six. It is a product of social situation. It is said that the more the child is frustrated by adult interference, the more negativism his behaviour will be.

[ D ] Emotional Development

Emotions play an important role in life and contribute in the personal and social adjustment of the individual provided they are directed into wholesome expression. 

Emotions have the following effects on the developing individual

• Emotions give us energy to face a particular situation in life.
• Emotions work as motivator of our behaviour.
• Emotions add pleasure to our everyday experiences in life.
• Emotions maintain our interest in work.
• Emotions influence our adjustment in the society.
• Emotions serve as a media of communication between individuals and guide the individual to modify in order to confirm to the social standard.

[ E ] Moral Development

• Moral development in the child of age span from 3 years to 6 years has no sense of shame, self discipline or self respect. Rewards and punishments are the chief influence under which his moral development takes place.
• Infant behaviour is mostly instinctive and the impulse to seek food and pleasure is the most dominant.
• In the absence of knowledge, experience and thought, they are satisfied.

Later Childhood (7 - 12 years)

Later childhood is an important phase of life. It is the period which requires proper guidance and counselling by parents and teachers for the adequate adjustment of children in the society.

[ A ] Physical Development

• There is slow increase in weight and height during late childhood. Girls are ahead of boys by two years. Changes are shown in all general proportions of the body. Children are face by diseases at this age. 
• Physiologically, the girls at the age of 11 are full year ahead of the boys. Shedding of milk teeth and growth of permanent teeth changes the appearance of mouth, broadening of the chest and motor skills develop through play. 
• Following are the marked changes:-
• Increased strength
• Increased resistance of fatigue.
• Accuracy and endurance increase in relation to games.

[ B ] Cognitive Development

The following changes in the intellectual development occur during the period of 7 years to twelve years of age.

• The child begins to make clear distinction between himself and outer world. He seeks reality in his environment.
• The concept of natural laws becomes almost fully developed by 12 years of age.
• Learning and Memory become more efficient because the child enters formal schooling.
• Capacity for logical thinking increases. The child becomes increasingly efficient in selecting, developing and applying cognitive operations in relation to concrete objects.
• Courage and loyalty increased.

[ C ] Social Development  

The process of socialisation confines to home and neighbourhood environment in early childhood but at the child enters school his social circle widens. Following are the major changes:-

• It is the period when children form peer group of their own sex and remain outside the home.
• Peer group becomes important agent of socialisation.
• Complaints of disobedience are highest in percentage during this period.
• Children rejects adult standards and circle of friends widens.
• Sex difference becomes sharp. Girls play with girls and boys play with boys. There is a sex difference in play activities.
• Social consciousness develop very rapidly. It is called “gang age”period when the child associates himself with the peer group of the same age who feel and act together. The child shows great loyalty to his gang. He conforms to the stand of his gang.

[ D ] Emotional Development

• Emotions are very important for life. Without emotions life becomes monotonous and dull. The change with the age of child. Following are characteristics of emotional changes during the period.
• Early pattern of emotional expression changes. By the end of late childhood the child learn to control his emotional expression in social situations.
• The emotional responses of the child become less diffuse, random and undifferentiated.
• Emotions are expressed even in the absence of concrete objects
• Emotions are most contagious during childhood, because children are highly suggestible and dependable on others.

[ E ] Moral Development

• The child has his own moral code and is faithful to his own group. 
• His morals are ruled by public opinion, social praise and blame. 
• They show loyalty to the group. Members are inspired by group consciousness which has great moral value.

Adolescence (13 - 19 years)

Adolescence is the most crucial and significant period of an individual’s life. It is the period of rapid revolutionary changes in the individual’s physical, mental, moral, spiritual, sex and social outlooks. The age span from 13 years to 19 years comes under adolescence.

[ A ] Physical Development

Important eternal and internal body changes that take place during adolescence are as under;

• Height:-  The average girl reaches and get mature height between the ages of 16 and 17 and the average boy, at year or so later. Weight also changes as growth takes place.

• Body Proportions:-  The various parts of the body gradually come into proportion.

• Sex Organs :-  Both female and male sex organs reach their mature size in late adolescence.

• Digestive system:-  The stomach becomes longer and less tabular. The intestines grow in length and circumstance. The liver increase in weight.

• Circulatory System:-  The heart grows rapidly. By the age of 17 or 18, it becomes 12 times heavier than it was at birth.

• The respiratory system, endocrine system and body tissues are developed and become mature.

[ B ] Intellectual/Cognitive Development

• The mental development takes place at a very complex level in adolescence.
• Increased ability to generalise facts.
• Increased ability to understand relationship between objects and to solve problems of increasing complexity and difficulty.
• Increased ability to deal with abstract terms.
• Tremendous development of memory and imagination. ability to solve problems of diverse nature. Increased ability to make decisions.

[ C ] Social Development

At this stage social changes are reflected in the influence of peer group, new values in friendship selection, new values in social acceptance and rejection and new values in the selection of headers.

Following are the changes and social development take place in the adolescence period:

• The adolescent usually has two or three close friends.
• Close friends have marked influence on one another.
• Dating grows.
• Close friends may also quarrel occasionally.
• Gang may also be formed and indulge in anti-social behaviour.
• Changes in the area of heterosexual relationship:-  An adolescent begins to prefer he company of the members of the opposite sex.

[ D ] Emotional Development

• Traditionally adolescence has been thought of as a period of height and emotional tension resulting from glandular and other changes. An adolescent comes under social pressures and faces new conditions for which he received little training during childhood.
• Change of roles of the adolescents in home, school and society from dependence to independent role, with great responsibility leads to emotional disturbances.
• Attitude of parents towards adolescents still treating them as children, sometimes results in friction.
• High expectation from the parents, the community and the society contributes to emotional disturbances.
• Difficulty to adjust with the members of opposite sex creates emotional tensions in the adolescents.
• Political, religious and social controversies give to conflicts, in the minds of the adolescents.

[ E ] Moral Development

• Moral development is not a natural endowment of man. It depends, on the nature of the experiences and training to which he is exposed. At home, in the neighbourhood and in the school and in the society at large.
• Adolescent moral character developed from the society and friends.
• The moral and discipline values are created on the basis of family background and various rules and regulations teach from the family.
• School family and peer play a special role in development of moral character.

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